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Unit 1 of 4 · M.Sc IT Sem 1

Unit 1: Computer fundamentals

Fundamentals of Computer and Programming in Python notes · PTU syllabus (PGCA1902)

3 min read9 topics10 exam questions
On this page
  1. Unit summary
  2. Hardware and software concepts
  3. Functional units of a computer
  4. CPU, registers and the system bus
  5. Memory unit and motherboard
  6. Input and output devices
  7. Data representation and number systems
  8. Machine, assembly and high-level languages
  9. The operating system as a user interface
  10. Emerging technologies: an introduction
  11. Key terms
  12. Quick revision
  13. Important questions

Unit summary

Every program runs on hardware managed by software. This unit covers hardware and software concepts, the CPU, registers, system bus, memory unit and motherboard, input and output devices, primary, secondary and auxiliary memory and cache, data representation and number systems, machine, assembly and high-level languages, the operating system as a user interface, and an introduction to Bluetooth, cloud computing, big data, data mining, mobile computing and IoT.

After this unit you can

  • Explain hardware, software and the functional units of a computer
  • Describe the CPU, registers, buses, memory and motherboard
  • Convert between number systems and explain data representation
  • Compare language levels and introduce emerging technologies

PTU syllabus topics

  • Hardware and software concepts
  • CPU/registers/system bus/memory unit/motherboard
  • I/O devices
  • primary/secondary/auxiliary memory and cache
  • data representation (bit, byte, binary/decimal/hexadecimal/octal systems and conversions)
  • machine/assembly/high-level languages
  • operating system as user interface
  • introduction to Bluetooth
  • cloud computing
  • big data
  • data mining
  • mobile computing and IoT
HierarchyMemory hierarchy
  1. Registers

    Inside the CPU: fastest

  2. Cache

    L1, L2, L3

  3. Main memory

    RAM

  4. Secondary storage

    SSD, HDD

  5. Auxiliary storage

    Tape, cloud, optical

1

Topic 1

Hardware and software concepts

ComparisonHardware and software
Hardware
Software

Nature

Physical, tangible parts

Programs and data; intangible

Examples

CPU, RAM, keyboard, disk

Windows, Python interpreter, MS Word

Failure

Wears out, damaged physically

Bugs; does not wear out

Types

Input, output, processing, storage, communication devices

System software, application software, utilities

2

Topic 2

Functional units of a computer

ProcessFunctional units of a computer
  1. 1Input unit

    Accepts data and instructions

  2. 2Memory unit

    Stores data and programs

  3. 3Control unit

    Directs and coordinates all operations

  4. 4Arithmetic logic unit

    Performs calculations and comparisons

  5. 5Output unit

    Presents results

The CPU = control unit + ALU (+ registers).

3

Topic 3

CPU, registers and the system bus

Key termsCPU registers
Program counter (PC)
Address of the next instruction
Instruction register (IR)
Instruction being executed
Memory address register (MAR)
Address of the memory location to access
Memory data register (MDR)
Data read from or written to memory
Accumulator (AC)
Holds intermediate results of ALU operations
General-purpose and status (flag) registers
Working data; carry, zero, sign flags
ProcessInstruction cycle
  1. 1Fetch

    PC → MAR; instruction read into MDR and IR; PC incremented

  2. 2Decode

    Control unit interprets the opcode

  3. 3Execute

    ALU performs the operation

  4. 4Store

    Result written to a register or memory

ComparisonSystem bus
Carries
Direction

Data bus

Actual data

Bidirectional

Address bus

Memory or I/O addresses (width decides addressable memory — 32 bits address 4 GB)

CPU to memory

Control bus

Read, write, clock, interrupt signals

Both ways

4

Topic 4

Memory unit and motherboard

ComparisonPrimary vs secondary memory
Primary memory
Secondary memory

Examples

RAM, ROM, cache

Hard disk, SSD, pen drive, DVD

Volatility

RAM volatile; ROM non-volatile

Non-volatile

Speed

Fast

Slower

Capacity and cost

Small, costly per GB

Large, cheap per GB

Storage units: 8 bits = 1 byte; 1 KB = 1024 bytes; MB, GB, TB follow in steps of 1024.

  • Magnetic core memory: early primary memory (1950s–1970s) using tiny magnetised rings — non-volatile but replaced by semiconductor RAM.
  • Cache memory: small, very fast memory between CPU and RAM holding frequently used data — levels L1, L2, L3.
HierarchyMemory hierarchy
  1. Registers

    Fastest, smallest

  2. Cache

    L1, L2, L3

  3. Main memory (RAM)
  4. Secondary storage

    SSD, HDD

  5. Tertiary and offline storage

    Tape, optical, cloud backup

  • Motherboard: the main circuit board connecting all components — CPU socket, RAM slots, chipset, BIOS/UEFI firmware chip, PCIe expansion slots, SATA and M.2 storage connectors, USB and audio ports, power connectors and the CMOS battery.
5

Topic 5

Input and output devices

ComparisonInput vs output devices
Input devices
Output devices

Function

Send data into the computer

Present results from the computer

Examples

Keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone, webcam, touch screen, barcode and QR readers, OMR, MICR

Monitor, printer, speakers, projector, plotter

6

Topic 6

Data representation and number systems

  • Bit: a binary digit (0 or 1); nibble: 4 bits; byte: 8 bits; word: the CPU's natural unit (32 or 64 bits). Characters are stored as codes — ASCII (7 bits) and Unicode (UTF-8, up to 4 bytes).
ComparisonNumber systems
Base and digits
Example

Binary

2: 0, 1

1011₂ = 11

Octal

8: 0–7

13₈ = 11

Decimal

10: 0–9

11

Hexadecimal

16: 0–9, A–F

B₁₆ = 11

ProcessConversions
  1. 1Decimal to base b

    Divide repeatedly by b and read remainders bottom to top

  2. 2Base b to decimal

    Multiply each digit by its place value (power of b) and add

  3. 3Binary to octal or hex

    Group bits in threes or fours from the right

  4. 4Octal or hex to binary

    Write each digit as 3 or 4 bits

Example

45₁₀ → 45 ÷ 2 gives remainders 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1 → 101101₂ = 55₈ = 2D₁₆. 3F₁₆ = 3 × 16 + 15 = 63₁₀.

7

Topic 7

Machine, assembly and high-level languages

ComparisonCompiler vs interpreter
Compiler
Interpreter

Translation

Whole program at once

Line by line

Speed of execution

Faster

Slower

Errors

Reported after compiling the whole program

Reported line by line

Examples

C, C++

Python, JavaScript

Assemblers translate assembly language into machine code.

GenerationLanguage
1GLMachine language (binary)
2GLAssembly language (mnemonics)
3GLHigh-level languages (C, Java, Python)
4GLQuery and report languages (SQL)
5GLAI and logic languages (Prolog)
  • Fourth-generation languages (4GL): closer to human language, specify what is needed rather than how — SQL, report generators, MATLAB.
8

Topic 8

The operating system as a user interface

  • The OS sits between users and hardware, managing processes, memory, files and devices and offering an interface: a command-line interface (Linux shell, Windows PowerShell), a graphical user interface (Windows, macOS, GNOME) or touch and voice interfaces (Android, iOS, assistants).
9

Topic 9

Emerging technologies: an introduction

Key termsEmerging technologies
Bluetooth
Short-range wireless (about 10 m) in the 2.4 GHz band for headsets, keyboards, wearables
Cloud computing
On-demand computing resources over the internet — IaaS, PaaS, SaaS
Big data
Very large, fast, varied data — volume, velocity, variety, veracity, value
Data mining
Discovering patterns in large data — association, classification, clustering
Mobile computing
Computing on the move with smartphones, tablets and wireless networks
Internet of Things (IoT)
Everyday objects with sensors connected to the internet — smart meters, wearables

Key terms

Register
Small, very fast storage inside the CPU
System bus
Set of data, address and control lines connecting components
Motherboard
Main circuit board connecting all computer parts
Cache memory
Fast memory between CPU and RAM
Hexadecimal
Base-16 number system using 0–9 and A–F

Quick revision

  • Hardware vs software; input, memory, ALU, control unit, output.
  • Registers PC, IR, MAR, MDR, AC; fetch–decode–execute; data, address and control buses.
  • Memory hierarchy; primary, secondary, auxiliary, cache; motherboard parts.
  • Bit, byte, ASCII, Unicode; binary, octal, decimal, hex conversions.
  • 1GL to 5GL; compiler, interpreter, assembler; OS interfaces; Bluetooth, cloud, big data, mining, mobile, IoT.

Important exam questions

Practice questions written to the PTU exam pattern for this unit's syllabus: short answers (Section A style) and long answers (Sections B and C style).

Short-answer questions

  1. Q1.Distinguish hardware and software.
  2. Q2.What is the role of the program counter?
  3. Q3.Name the three buses of a system bus.
  4. Q4.Convert 156₁₀ to binary and hexadecimal.
  5. Q5.Distinguish a compiler and an interpreter.
  6. Q6.What is the Internet of Things?

Long-answer questions

  1. Q1.Explain the functional units of a computer and the CPU's registers.
  2. Q2.Explain the types of memory and the memory hierarchy.
  3. Q3.Explain number systems and conversions with examples.
  4. Q4.Explain the generations of programming languages and emerging technologies.

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