Unit 3: Group behaviour and culture

Transactional analysis (TA), developed by Eric Berne, analyses interpersonal communication in terms of three ego states.

• Transactions: complementary (response comes from the ego state addressed — communication continues), crossed (unexpected ego state replies — communication breaks down), ulterior (hidden message beneath the surface).
• Life positions (Thomas Harris): I'm OK – You're OK (healthy); I'm OK – You're not OK; I'm not OK – You're OK; I'm not OK – You're not OK.

The Johari window (Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham, 1955) maps self-awareness and mutual understanding.

• Enlarge the open area through self-disclosure (reduces the hidden area) and seeking feedback (reduces the blind area) — improving trust and communication.

A group is two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who come together to achieve particular objectives. Group dynamics studies the forces operating within groups.

• Formal groups: command groups (manager and subordinates) and task groups.
• Informal groups: interest groups and friendship groups.

Theories of group formation

• Propinquity theory: people form groups because of physical proximity.
• Homans' theory: activities, interactions and sentiments are interrelated.
• Balance theory (Newcomb): people with similar attitudes are attracted to each other.
• Exchange theory: people join groups when rewards exceed costs.

Types of teams: problem-solving, self-managed, cross-functional and virtual. Effective teams need adequate resources, clear goals, trust, the right size and skill mix, fair evaluation and rewards, and good leadership.

• Norms: acceptable standards of behaviour shared by group members (dress, output, punctuality).
• Roles: expected behaviour patterns of a person in a position — role ambiguity and role conflict cause stress.
• Status: the rank given to a person by others.
• Cohesiveness: the degree to which members are attracted to each other and motivated to stay. High cohesiveness with high performance norms gives high productivity; with low norms, low productivity.

Status

• Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or members by others.
• Sources: formal position, personal characteristics (education, experience), ability to contribute to group goals.
• Effects: high-status members are more assertive and have more freedom from norms; status inequity creates frustration.

Stress is a dynamic condition in which an individual faces an opportunity, demand or resource related to what they desire, where the outcome is uncertain and important. Sources: environmental (economic uncertainty, technological change), organisational (role overload, role conflict, poor leadership, deadlines) and individual (family, finances, personality). Effects: physiological (headaches, blood pressure), psychological (anxiety, dissatisfaction) and behavioural (absenteeism, turnover). Management: individual — time management, exercise, relaxation, social support; organisational — better selection and placement, clear roles, goal setting, job redesign, wellness programmes and employee assistance.

Organisational culture is a system of shared meaning — values, beliefs and norms — that distinguishes one organisation from another.

Types: strong vs weak cultures, dominant culture and subcultures; Handy's typology — power, role, task and person cultures. Culture is created by founders and sustained through selection, top management behaviour and socialisation; employees learn it through stories, rituals, symbols and language.